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Scanning of an object or environment to collect data on its shape

Making a 3D-model of a Viking chugalug buckle using a paw held VIUscan 3D laser scanner.

3D scanning is the process of analyzing a real-world object or surround to collect information on its shape and perchance its appearance (e.g. color). The collected data can then be used to construct digital 3D models.

A 3D scanner can be based on many unlike technologies, each with its own limitations, advantages and costs. Many limitations in the kind of objects that can exist digitised are still nowadays. For example, optical engineering science may come across many difficulties with dark, shiny, reflective or transparent objects. For example, industrial computed tomography scanning, structured-light 3D scanners, LiDAR and Time Of Flight 3D Scanners can be used to construct digital 3D models, without destructive testing.

Collected 3D information is useful for a wide diversity of applications. These devices are used extensively by the entertainment manufacture in the production of movies and video games, including virtual reality. Other mutual applications of this technology include augmented reality,[i] motion capture,[two] [three] gesture recognition,[4] robotic mapping,[v] industrial blueprint, orthotics and prosthetics,[vi] reverse engineering science and prototyping, quality control/inspection and the digitization of cultural artifacts.[7]

Functionality [edit]

The purpose of a 3D scanner is usually to create a 3D model. This 3D model consists of a polygon mesh or point cloud of geometric samples on the surface of the subject area. These points tin can then be used to extrapolate the shape of the subject (a process called reconstruction). If colour information is collected at each indicate, then the colours or textures on the surface of the subject can besides exist adamant.

3D scanners share several traits with cameras. Like nigh cameras, they have a cone-similar field of view, and similar cameras, they can only collect information about surfaces that are not obscured. While a camera collects colour data nearly surfaces inside its field of view, a 3D scanner collects distance information about surfaces within its field of view. The "motion-picture show" produced past a 3D scanner describes the distance to a surface at each indicate in the motion picture. This allows the three dimensional position of each point in the pic to be identified.

In some situations, a single scan will not produce a complete model of the subject. Multiple scans, from different directions are usually helpful to obtain information near all sides of the bailiwick. These scans have to exist brought into a mutual reference organisation, a procedure that is usually chosen alignment or registration, and then merged to create a complete 3D model. This whole process, going from the single range map to the whole model, is usually known as the 3D scanning pipeline.[8] [9] [10] [11] [12]

Technology [edit]

There are a variety of technologies for digitally acquiring the shape of a 3D object. The techniques work with most or all sensor types including optical, acoustic, laser scanning,[13] radar, thermal,[14] and seismic.[fifteen] [16] A well established classification[17] divides them into ii types: contact and non-contact. Non-contact solutions tin be further divided into two main categories, active and passive. In that location are a multifariousness of technologies that fall under each of these categories.

Contact [edit]

Contact 3D scanners probe the subject through concrete touch, while the object is in contact with or resting on a precision flat surface plate, basis and polished to a specific maximum of surface roughness. Where the object to be scanned is not flat or can non rest stably on a flat surface, it is supported and held firmly in place by a fixture.

The scanner machinery may have 3 unlike forms:

  • A wagon organization with rigid arms held tightly in perpendicular relationship and each axis gliding along a rail. Such systems work all-time with apartment profile shapes or simple convex curved surfaces.
  • An articulated arm with rigid bones and high precision angular sensors. The location of the end of the arm involves complex math computing the wrist rotation angle and hinge bending of each joint. This is ideal for probing into crevasses and interior spaces with a small mouth opening.
  • A combination of both methods may be used, such equally an articulated arm suspended from a traveling carriage, for mapping large objects with interior cavities or overlapping surfaces.

A CMM (coordinate measuring machine) is an case of a contact 3D scanner. Information technology is used mostly in manufacturing and can be very precise. The disadvantage of CMMs though, is that it requires contact with the object beingness scanned. Thus, the human activity of scanning the object might modify or impairment it. This fact is very significant when scanning delicate or valuable objects such as historical artifacts. The other disadvantage of CMMs is that they are relatively slow compared to the other scanning methods. Physically moving the arm that the probe is mounted on can be very slow and the fastest CMMs can only operate on a few hundred hertz. In dissimilarity, an optical organization similar a laser scanner can operate from x to 500 kHz.[18]

Other examples are the mitt driven touch probes used to digitise clay models in reckoner animation industry.

Not-contact active [edit]

Agile scanners emit some kind of radiations or low-cal and detect its reflection or radiations passing through object in guild to probe an object or surroundings. Possible types of emissions used include low-cal, ultrasound or x-ray.

Time-of-flight [edit]

This lidar scanner may be used to scan buildings, rock formations, etc., to produce a 3D model. The lidar can aim its light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation beam in a wide range: its head rotates horizontally, a mirror flips vertically. The laser beam is used to measure the altitude to the start object on its path.

The time-of-flying 3D laser scanner is an agile scanner that uses laser low-cal to probe the subject. At the heart of this type of scanner is a fourth dimension-of-flight laser range finder. The light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation range finder finds the distance of a surface by timing the round-trip time of a pulse of light. A laser is used to emit a pulse of light and the amount of time before the reflected lite is seen by a detector is measured. Since the speed of calorie-free c {\displaystyle c} is known, the circular-trip time determines the travel altitude of the calorie-free, which is twice the altitude betwixt the scanner and the surface. If t {\displaystyle t} is the round-trip time, then altitude is equal to c ⋅ t / 2 {\displaystyle \textstyle c\!\cdot \!t/ii} . The accuracy of a time-of-flight 3D laser scanner depends on how precisely we tin can mensurate the t {\displaystyle t} time: 3.3 picoseconds (approx.) is the time taken for light to travel i millimetre.

The laser range finder only detects the distance of 1 point in its management of view. Thus, the scanner scans its unabridged field of view one indicate at a time by changing the range finder's direction of view to browse different points. The view direction of the light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation range finder can be changed either by rotating the range finder itself, or by using a system of rotating mirrors. The latter method is commonly used because mirrors are much lighter and can thus exist rotated much faster and with greater accuracy. Typical time-of-flight 3D laser scanners tin can measure out the distance of 10,000~100,000 points every second.

Time-of-flight devices are as well available in a 2d configuration. This is referred to as a time-of-flight camera.[19]

Triangulation [edit]

Principle of a laser triangulation sensor. Two object positions are shown.

Triangulation based 3D light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation scanners are also active scanners that use light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation light to probe the environs. With respect to time-of-flight 3D laser scanner the triangulation laser shines a laser on the discipline and exploits a camera to look for the location of the laser dot. Depending on how far abroad the laser strikes a surface, the laser dot appears at different places in the camera's field of view. This technique is called triangulation because the laser dot, the photographic camera and the laser emitter form a triangle. The length of one side of the triangle, the altitude between the photographic camera and the laser emitter is known. The angle of the laser emitter corner is also known. The angle of the camera corner can be adamant by looking at the location of the laser dot in the camera's field of view. These 3 pieces of information fully decide the shape and size of the triangle and give the location of the laser dot corner of the triangle.[20] In most cases a laser stripe, instead of a single laser dot, is swept across the object to speed up the acquisition process. The National Research Council of Canada was among the beginning institutes to develop the triangulation based laser scanning engineering in 1978.[21]

Strengths and weaknesses [edit]

Fourth dimension-of-flight and triangulation range finders each have strengths and weaknesses that make them suitable for different situations. The reward of time-of-flight range finders is that they are capable of operating over very long distances, on the gild of kilometres. These scanners are thus suitable for scanning large structures similar buildings or geographic features. The disadvantage of time-of-flying range finders is their accurateness. Due to the high speed of light, timing the round-trip time is difficult and the accuracy of the distance measurement is relatively low, on the society of millimetres.

Triangulation range finders are exactly the opposite. They have a limited range of some meters, but their accuracy is relatively loftier. The accuracy of triangulation range finders is on the order of tens of micrometers.

Time-of-flight scanners' accuracy tin can be lost when the light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation hits the edge of an object because the information that is sent dorsum to the scanner is from 2 different locations for i laser pulse. The coordinate relative to the scanner's position for a point that has hit the edge of an object will be calculated based on an boilerplate and therefore will put the point in the wrong place. When using a loftier resolution scan on an object the chances of the beam striking an border are increased and the resulting information volition show dissonance just backside the edges of the object. Scanners with a smaller axle width volition assistance to solve this problem merely will exist limited past range equally the axle width will increase over altitude. Software tin can also aid by determining that the commencement object to exist striking past the light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation beam should cancel out the second.

At a rate of 10,000 sample points per 2nd, low resolution scans can have less than a second, but high resolution scans, requiring millions of samples, can take minutes for some time-of-flight scanners. The trouble this creates is distortion from motion. Since each point is sampled at a dissimilar fourth dimension, any motion in the subject or the scanner will distort the collected data. Thus, information technology is normally necessary to mountain both the subject and the scanner on stable platforms and minimise vibration. Using these scanners to scan objects in motion is very hard.

Recently, in that location has been research on compensating for distortion from small amounts of vibration[22] and distortions due to motion and/or rotation.[23]

Short-range laser scanners tin can't normally cover a depth of field more than one meter.[24] When scanning in one position for any length of time slight movement can occur in the scanner position due to changes in temperature. If the scanner is prepare on a tripod and there is potent sunlight on i side of the scanner then that side of the tripod will expand and slowly distort the scan data from one side to some other. Some laser scanners have level compensators congenital into them to counteract any movement of the scanner during the scan process.

Conoscopic holography [edit]

In a conoscopic organization, a laser beam is projected onto the surface and so the firsthand reflection along the same ray-path are put through a conoscopic crystal and projected onto a CCD. The result is a diffraction pattern, that can exist frequency analyzed to determine the distance to the measured surface. The chief reward with conoscopic holography is that simply a single ray-path is needed for measuring, thus giving an opportunity to measure for instance the depth of a finely drilled hole.[25]

Manus-held laser scanners [edit]

Mitt-held laser scanners create a 3D image through the triangulation machinery described above: a laser dot or line is projected onto an object from a hand-held device and a sensor (typically a charge-coupled device or position sensitive device) measures the distance to the surface. Data is collected in relation to an internal coordinate organisation and therefore to collect data where the scanner is in movement the position of the scanner must be adamant. The position can be adamant by the scanner using reference features on the surface existence scanned (typically adhesive cogitating tabs, merely natural features accept been also used in enquiry piece of work)[26] [27] or by using an external tracking method. External tracking oftentimes takes the grade of a laser tracker (to provide the sensor position) with integrated photographic camera (to determine the orientation of the scanner) or a photogrammetric solution using 3 or more cameras providing the complete vi degrees of freedom of the scanner. Both techniques tend to use infra red low-cal-emitting diodes fastened to the scanner which are seen by the photographic camera(s) through filters providing resilience to ambient lighting.[28]

Data is collected past a computer and recorded as data points inside three-dimensional space, with processing this can exist converted into a triangulated mesh and then a computer-aided design model, oft as non-uniform rational B-spline surfaces. Hand-held laser scanners can combine this information with passive, visible-light sensors — which capture surface textures and colors — to build (or "reverse engineer") a full 3D model.

Structured lite [edit]

Structured-light 3D scanners project a pattern of light on the discipline and await at the deformation of the pattern on the field of study. The pattern is projected onto the subject using either an LCD projector or other stable light source. A photographic camera, starting time slightly from the pattern projector, looks at the shape of the pattern and calculates the altitude of every point in the field of view.

Structured-light scanning is still a very active area of research with many research papers published each yr. Perfect maps have also been proven useful equally structured light patterns that solve the correspondence trouble and allow for error detection and error correction.[24] [Run across Morano, R., et al. "Structured Light Using Pseudorandom Codes," IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Automobile Intelligence.

The advantage of structured-light 3D scanners is speed and precision. Instead of scanning one point at a time, structured light scanners browse multiple points or the entire field of view at once. Scanning an unabridged field of view in a fraction of a 2nd reduces or eliminates the problem of baloney from motility. Some existing systems are capable of scanning moving objects in existent-fourth dimension.

A existent-fourth dimension scanner using digital fringe projection and phase-shifting technique (sure kinds of structured light methods) was developed, to capture, reconstruct, and render high-density details of dynamically deformable objects (such every bit facial expressions) at 40 frames per second.[29] Recently, some other scanner has been developed. Different patterns tin be applied to this organisation, and the frame rate for capturing and information processing achieves 120 frames per second. It can as well browse isolated surfaces, for instance ii moving easily.[30] By utilising the binary defocusing technique, speed breakthroughs have been made that could attain hundreds [31] to thousands of frames per second.[32]

Modulated low-cal [edit]

Modulated light 3D scanners polish a continually changing light at the subject. Normally the lite source simply cycles its aamplitude in a sinusoidal blueprint. A camera detects the reflected lite and the amount the design is shifted past determines the altitude the low-cal travelled. Modulated lite also allows the scanner to ignore light from sources other than a laser, then there is no interference.

Volumetric techniques [edit]

Medical [edit]

Computed tomography (CT) is a medical imaging method which generates a three-dimensional paradigm of the inside of an object from a large series of ii-dimensional X-ray images, similarly magnetic resonance imaging is another medical imaging technique that provides much greater contrast between the different soft tissues of the body than computed tomography (CT) does, making information technology especially useful in neurological (brain), musculoskeletal, cardiovascular, and oncological (cancer) imaging. These techniques produce a detached 3D volumetric representation that tin exist directly visualised, manipulated or converted to traditional 3D surface by hateful of isosurface extraction algorithms.

Industrial [edit]

Although virtually common in medicine, industrial computed tomography, microtomography and MRI are as well used in other fields for acquiring a digital representation of an object and its interior, such as non subversive materials testing, reverse engineering, or studying biological and paleontological specimens.

Non-contact passive [edit]

Passive 3D imaging solutions practise not emit whatever kind of radiation themselves, simply instead rely on detecting reflected ambient radiation. Virtually solutions of this blazon find visible lite because it is a readily available ambient radiation. Other types of radiation, such every bit infra cerise could likewise be used. Passive methods can be very cheap, because in virtually cases they do non need particular hardware but simple digital cameras.

  • Stereoscopic systems commonly employ two video cameras, slightly apart, looking at the aforementioned scene. Past analysing the slight differences between the images seen by each photographic camera, it is possible to make up one's mind the distance at each betoken in the images. This method is based on the same principles driving human being stereoscopic vision[1].
  • Photometric systems commonly utilise a single camera, but take multiple images under varying lighting weather. These techniques attempt to invert the image formation model in social club to recover the surface orientation at each pixel.
  • Silhouette techniques use outlines created from a sequence of photographs effectually a iii-dimensional object against a well contrasted background. These silhouettes are extruded and intersected to form the visual hull approximation of the object. With these approaches some concavities of an object (like the interior of a bowl) cannot be detected.

Photogrammetric non-contact passive methods [edit]

Images taken from multiple perspectives such every bit a fixed photographic camera array can exist taken of a subject for a photogrammetric reconstruction pipeline to generate a 3D mesh or bespeak deject.

Photogrammetry provides reliable data about 3D shapes of physical objects based on analysis of photographic images. The resulting 3D data is typically provided as a 3D bespeak deject, 3D mesh or 3D points.[33] Mod photogrammetry software applications automatically analyze a large number of digital images for 3D reconstruction, still manual interaction may exist required if the software cannot automatically determine the 3D positions of the camera in the images which is an essential step in the reconstruction pipeline. Various software packages are available including PhotoModeler, Geodetic Systems, Autodesk ReCap, RealityCapture and Agisoft Metashape (see comparison of photogrammetry software).

  • Close range photogrammetry typically uses a handheld camera such as a DSLR with a fixed focal length lens to capture images of objects for 3D reconstruction.[34] Subjects include smaller objects such as a building facade, vehicles, sculptures, rocks, and shoes.
  • Camera Arrays tin be used to generate 3D indicate clouds or meshes of live objects such as people or pets by synchronizing multiple cameras to photograph a subject from multiple perspectives at the aforementioned fourth dimension for 3D object reconstruction.[35]
  • Wide angle photogrammetry can be used to capture the interior of buildings or enclosed spaces using a wide bending lens camera such as a 360 photographic camera.
  • Aerial photogrammetry uses aerial images acquired past satellite, commercial aircraft or UAV drone to collect images of buildings, structures and terrain for 3D reconstruction into a indicate cloud or mesh.

Conquering from acquired sensor data [edit]

Semi-automated building extraction from lidar data and high-resolution images is also a possibility. Over again, this arroyo allows modelling without physically moving towards the location or object.[36] From airborne lidar data, digital surface model (DSM) tin can be generated so the objects college than the basis are automatically detected from the DSM. Based on full general noesis about buildings, geometric characteristics such as size, height and shape data are and so used to separate the buildings from other objects. The extracted building outlines are then simplified using an orthogonal algorithm to obtain better cartographic quality. Watershed analysis can be conducted to extract the ridgelines of building roofs. The ridgelines as well as slope information are used to classify the buildings per type. The buildings are then reconstructed using three parametric edifice models (flat, gabled, hipped).[37]

Acquisition from on-site sensors [edit]

Lidar and other terrestrial laser scanning engineering science[38] offers the fastest, automated way to collect acme or distance data. lidar or laser for elevation measurement of buildings is condign very promising.[39] Commercial applications of both airborne lidar and ground laser scanning engineering science have proven to exist fast and accurate methods for building summit extraction. The edifice extraction job is needed to determine building locations, basis elevation, orientations, edifice size, rooftop heights, etc. Most buildings are described to sufficient details in terms of full general polyhedra, i.eastward., their boundaries can exist represented by a fix of planar surfaces and straight lines. Further processing such as expressing building footprints as polygons is used for data storing in GIS databases.

Using laser scans and images taken from ground level and a bird'due south-heart perspective, Fruh and Zakhor present an approach to automatically create textured 3D metropolis models. This approach involves registering and merging the detailed facade models with a complementary airborne model. The airborne modeling process generates a half-meter resolution model with a bird's-eye view of the unabridged area, containing terrain profile and building tops. Footing-based modeling process results in a detailed model of the building facades. Using the DSM obtained from airborne laser scans, they localize the conquering vehicle and register the ground-based facades to the airborne model by means of Monte Carlo localization (MCL). Finally, the two models are merged with different resolutions to obtain a 3D model.

Using an airborne laser altimeter, Haala, Brenner and Anders combined height data with the existing basis plans of buildings. The ground plans of buildings had already been acquired either in analog form by maps and plans or digitally in a 2nd GIS. The project was done in order to enable an automatic information capture by the integration of these unlike types of information. Afterwards virtual reality city models are generated in the project by texture processing, east.k. past mapping of terrestrial images. The projection demonstrated the feasibility of rapid acquisition of 3D urban GIS. Footing plans proved are another very of import source of data for 3D edifice reconstruction. Compared to results of automatic procedures, these ground plans proved more reliable since they comprise aggregated information which has been made explicit by human interpretation. For this reason, ground plans, can considerably reduce costs in a reconstruction project. An example of existing ground plan data usable in building reconstruction is the Digital Cadastral map, which provides information on the distribution of property, including the borders of all agricultural areas and the ground plans of existing buildings. Additionally data as street names and the usage of buildings (due east.g. garage, residential building, role block, industrial building, church) is provided in the grade of text symbols. At the moment the Digital Cadastral map is built up as a database roofing an expanse, mainly composed past digitizing preexisting maps or plans.

Cost [edit]

  • Terrestrial laser browse devices (pulse or stage devices) + processing software generally start at a cost of €150,000. Some less precise devices (as the Trimble VX) cost around €75,000.
  • Terrestrial lidar systems price effectually €300,000.
  • Systems using regular all the same cameras mounted on RC helicopters (Photogrammetry) are also possible, and cost around €25,000. Systems that use still cameras with balloons are fifty-fifty cheaper (around €2,500), simply require additional manual processing. As the manual processing takes around i month of labor for every day of taking pictures, this is still an expensive solution in the long run.
  • Obtaining satellite images is also an expensive try. Loftier resolution stereo images (0.5 m resolution) cost around €11,000. Paradigm satellites include Quikbird, Ikonos. High resolution monoscopic images price around €5,500. Somewhat lower resolution images (east.m. from the CORONA satellite; with a 2 m resolution) toll effectually €ane,000 per two images. Annotation that Google Earth images are too low in resolution to make an accurate 3D model.[40]

Reconstruction [edit]

From point clouds [edit]

The point clouds produced by 3D scanners and 3D imaging can exist used direct for measurement and visualisation in the architecture and construction earth.

From models [edit]

Most applications, withal, use instead polygonal 3D models, NURBS surface models, or editable feature-based CAD models (aka solid models).

  • Polygon mesh models: In a polygonal representation of a shape, a curved surface is modeled as many modest faceted flat surfaces (think of a sphere modeled as a disco ball). Polygon models—also called Mesh models, are useful for visualisation, for some CAM (i.e., machining), just are by and large "heavy" ( i.e., very large data sets), and are relatively united nations-editable in this form. Reconstruction to polygonal model involves finding and connecting adjacent points with straight lines in order to create a continuous surface. Many applications, both free and nonfree, are available for this purpose (e.k. GigaMesh, MeshLab, PointCab, kubit PointCloud for AutoCAD, Reconstructor, imagemodel, PolyWorks, Rapidform, Geomagic, Imageware, Rhino 3D etc.).
  • Surface models: The next level of composure in modeling involves using a quilt of curved surface patches to model the shape. These might be NURBS, TSplines or other curved representations of curved topology. Using NURBS, the spherical shape becomes a true mathematical sphere. Some applications offering patch layout by manus but the all-time in form offer both automated patch layout and manual layout. These patches accept the reward of being lighter and more manipulable when exported to CAD. Surface models are somewhat editable, simply just in a sculptural sense of pushing and pulling to deform the surface. This representation lends itself well to modelling organic and creative shapes. Providers of surface modellers include Rapidform, Geomagic, Rhino 3D, Maya, T Splines etc.
  • Solid CAD models: From an engineering/manufacturing perspective, the ultimate representation of a digitised shape is the editable, parametric CAD model. In CAD, the sphere is described by parametric features which are hands edited by changing a value (e.g., centre bespeak and radius).

These CAD models describe not just the envelope or shape of the object, merely CAD models besides embody the "design intent" (i.e., critical features and their human relationship to other features). An example of pattern intent not evident in the shape alone might be a brake drum's lug bolts, which must exist concentric with the hole in the centre of the drum. This cognition would drive the sequence and method of creating the CAD model; a designer with an awareness of this human relationship would not design the lug bolts referenced to the outside diameter, but instead, to the eye. A modeler creating a CAD model will want to include both Shape and pattern intent in the complete CAD model.

Vendors offer different approaches to getting to the parametric CAD model. Some export the NURBS surfaces and leave it to the CAD designer to complete the model in CAD (e.g., Geomagic, Imageware, Rhino 3D). Others employ the scan information to create an editable and verifiable feature based model that is imported into CAD with full feature tree intact, yielding a consummate, native CAD model, capturing both shape and design intent (e.g. Geomagic, Rapidform). For example, the market offers various plug-ins for established CAD-programs, such as SolidWorks. Xtract3D, DezignWorks and Geomagic for SolidWorks let manipulating a 3D scan directly within SolidWorks. Still other CAD applications are robust enough to manipulate limited points or polygon models within the CAD surround (e.chiliad., CATIA, AutoCAD, Revit).

From a gear up of 2d slices [edit]

3D reconstruction of the encephalon and eyeballs from CT scanned DICOM images. In this epitome, areas with the density of bone or air were made transparent, and the slices stacked upwards in an approximate gratis-space alignment. The outer ring of fabric around the brain are the soft tissues of skin and musculus on the exterior of the skull. A black box encloses the slices to provide the blackness background. Since these are simply second images stacked up, when viewed on edge the slices disappear since they accept finer goose egg thickness. Each DICOM scan represents almost 5 mm of cloth averaged into a sparse slice.

CT, industrial CT, MRI, or micro-CT scanners practise not produce indicate clouds but a set of 2d slices (each termed a "tomogram") which are and then 'stacked together' to produce a 3D representation. At that place are several ways to do this depending on the output required:

  • Volume rendering: Dissimilar parts of an object usually have different threshold values or greyscale densities. From this, a 3-dimensional model can be constructed and displayed on screen. Multiple models tin exist synthetic from diverse thresholds, allowing dissimilar colours to correspond each component of the object. Volume rendering is ordinarily but used for visualisation of the scanned object.
  • Image segmentation: Where different structures have similar threshold/greyscale values, it can become impossible to separate them simply by adjusting volume rendering parameters. The solution is chosen segmentation, a manual or automated procedure that can remove the unwanted structures from the image. Image segmentation software unremarkably allows export of the segmented structures in CAD or STL format for further manipulation.
  • Image-based meshing: When using 3D image data for computational analysis (e.thou. CFD and FEA), simply segmenting the information and meshing from CAD can become time-consuming, and virtually intractable for the circuitous topologies typical of image information. The solution is called image-based meshing, an automated procedure of generating an accurate and realistic geometrical description of the scan data.

From laser scans [edit]

Laser scanning describes the general method to sample or scan a surface using laser technology. Several areas of application exist that mainly differ in the ability of the lasers that are used, and in the results of the scanning procedure. Low light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation power is used when the scanned surface doesn't take to be influenced, e.m. when it simply has to exist digitised. Confocal or 3D laser scanning are methods to go information well-nigh the scanned surface. Some other depression-power application uses structured calorie-free projection systems for solar cell flatness metrology,[41] enabling stress calculation throughout in excess of 2000 wafers per hr.[42]

The laser power used for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation scanning equipment in industrial applications is typically less than 1W. The power level is commonly on the order of 200 mW or less only sometimes more.

From photographs [edit]

3D data acquisition and object reconstruction tin can be performed using stereo image pairs. Stereo photogrammetry or photogrammetry based on a block of overlapped images is the principal approach for 3D mapping and object reconstruction using second images. Close-range photogrammetry has likewise matured to the level where cameras or digital cameras tin can be used to capture the shut-look images of objects, east.g., buildings, and reconstruct them using the very same theory as the aeriform photogrammetry. An example of software which could do this is Vexcel FotoG 5.[43] [44] This software has now been replaced by Vexcel GeoSynth.[45] Some other similar software programme is Microsoft Photosynth.[46] [47]

A semi-automatic method for acquiring 3D topologically structured information from 2D aeriform stereo images has been presented by Sisi Zlatanova.[48] The process involves the manual digitizing of a number of points necessary for automatically reconstructing the 3D objects. Each reconstructed object is validated by superimposition of its wire frame graphics in the stereo model. The topologically structured 3D data is stored in a database and are besides used for visualization of the objects. Notable software used for 3D data acquisition using 2d images include e.k. Agisoft Metashape,[49] RealityCapture,[l] and ENSAIS Engineering College TIPHON (Traitement d'Image et PHOtogrammétrie Numérique).[51]

A method for semi-automatic building extraction together with a concept for storing edifice models alongside terrain and other topographic information in a topographical information system has been developed by Franz Rottensteiner. His arroyo was based on the integration of building parameter estimations into the photogrammetry process applying a hybrid modeling scheme. Buildings are decomposed into a gear up of elementary primitives that are reconstructed individually and are and so combined by Boolean operators. The internal data structure of both the primitives and the compound building models are based on the boundary representation methods[52] [53]

Multiple images are used in Zeng's arroyo to surface reconstruction from multiple images. A central idea is to explore the integration of both 3D stereo data and 2nd calibrated images. This approach is motivated past the fact that only robust and accurate characteristic points that survived the geometry scrutiny of multiple images are reconstructed in space. The density insufficiency and the inevitable holes in the stereo data should and so be filled in by using information from multiple images. The idea is thus to first construct small surface patches from stereo points, then to progressively propagate only reliable patches in their neighborhood from images into the whole surface using a best-first strategy. The trouble thus reduces to searching for an optimal local surface patch going through a given set of stereo points from images.

Multi-spectral images are also used for 3D building detection. The outset and last pulse data and the normalized deviation vegetation alphabetize are used in the process.[54]

New measurement techniques are as well employed to obtain measurements of and betwixt objects from single images by using the project, or the shadow every bit well as their combination. This applied science is gaining attending given its fast processing fourth dimension, and far lower cost than stereo measurements.[ commendation needed ]

Applications [edit]

Space Experiments [edit]

Infinite rock scans for the European Space Bureau[55] [56]

Structure industry and civil engineering [edit]

  • Robotic control: due east.g. a light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation scanner may office as the "eye" of a robot.[57] [58]
  • As-built drawings of bridges, industrial plants, and monuments
  • Documentation of historical sites[59]
  • Site modelling and lay outing
  • Quality control
  • Quantity surveys
  • Payload monitoring [60]
  • Freeway redesign
  • Establishing a demote marking of pre-existing shape/land in order to detect structural changes resulting from exposure to farthermost loadings such as earthquake, vessel/truck impact or fire.
  • Create GIS (geographic information organisation) maps[61] and geomatics.
  • Subsurface light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation scanning in mines and karst voids.[62]
  • Forensic documentation[63]

Design process [edit]

  • Increasing accuracy working with complex parts and shapes,
  • Coordinating product blueprint using parts from multiple sources,
  • Updating old CD scans with those from more current technology,
  • Replacing missing or older parts,
  • Creating cost savings by allowing as-congenital design services, for example in automotive manufacturing plants,
  • "Bringing the establish to the engineers" with web shared scans, and
  • Saving travel costs.

Entertainment [edit]

3D scanners are used by the entertainment industry to create digital 3D models for movies, video games and leisure purposes.[64] They are heavily utilized in virtual cinematography. In cases where a real-globe equivalent of a model exists, it is much faster to scan the real-world object than to manually create a model using 3D modeling software. Oftentimes, artists sculpt physical models of what they want and browse them into digital grade rather than directly creating digital models on a computer.

3D photography [edit]

3D selfie in 1:20 scale printed by Shapeways using gypsum-based printing, created by Madurodam miniature park from 2nd pictures taken at its Fantasitron photo booth.

3D scanners are evolving for the utilise of cameras to represent 3D objects in an authentic manner.[65] Companies are emerging since 2010 that create 3D portraits of people (3D figurines or 3D selfie).

An augmented reality menu for the Madrid restaurant chain 80 Degrees[66]

Law enforcement [edit]

3D laser scanning is used by the law enforcement agencies around the globe. 3D models are used for on-site documentation of:[67]

  • Crime scenes
  • Bullet trajectories
  • Bloodstain pattern analysis
  • Accident reconstruction
  • Bombings
  • Plane crashes, and more than

Reverse engineering [edit]

Reverse engineering of a mechanical component requires a precise digital model of the objects to be reproduced. Rather than a set of points a precise digital model can be represented by a polygon mesh, a set of flat or curved NURBS surfaces, or ideally for mechanical components, a CAD solid model. A 3D scanner can be used to digitise free-form or gradually changing shaped components besides as prismatic geometries whereas a coordinate measuring automobile is usually used just to determine simple dimensions of a highly prismatic model. These data points are and so processed to create a usable digital model, ordinarily using specialized reverse engineering science software.

Real estate [edit]

Land or buildings can be scanned into a 3D model, which allows buyers to tour and inspect the property remotely, anywhere, without having to exist nowadays at the property.[68] There is already at to the lowest degree one company providing 3D-scanned virtual real manor tours.[69] A typical virtual bout Archived 2017-04-27 at the Wayback Machine would consist of dollhouse view,[70] inside view, as well equally a floor plan.

Virtual/remote tourism [edit]

The surround at a place of involvement can be captured and converted into a 3D model. This model can then be explored by the public, either through a VR interface or a traditional "2D" interface. This allows the user to explore locations which are inconvenient for travel.[71] A group of history students at Vancouver iTech Preparatory Centre School created a Virtual Museum by 3D Scanning more than than 100 artifacts.[72]

Cultural heritage [edit]

At that place have been many research projects undertaken via the scanning of historical sites and artifacts both for documentation and analysis purposes.[73]

The combined apply of 3D scanning and 3D printing technologies allows the replication of existent objects without the utilize of traditional plaster casting techniques, that in many cases tin be too invasive for being performed on precious or fragile cultural heritage artifacts.[74] In an example of a typical application scenario, a gargoyle model was digitally caused using a 3D scanner and the produced 3D information was processed using MeshLab. The resulting digital 3D model was fed to a rapid prototyping machine to create a existent resin replica of the original object.

Cosmos of 3D models for Museums and Archaeological artifacts[75] [76] [77]

Michelangelo [edit]

In 1999, ii dissimilar research groups started scanning Michelangelo'southward statues. Stanford Academy with a group led past Marc Levoy[78] used a custom laser triangulation scanner built by Cyberware to scan Michelangelo's statues in Florence, notably the David, the Prigioni and the four statues in The Medici Chapel. The scans produced a data point density of one sample per 0.25 mm, detailed enough to see Michelangelo's chisel marks. These detailed scans produced a big amount of information (up to 32 gigabytes) and processing the data from his scans took five months. Approximately in the same menstruum a enquiry grouping from IBM, led past H. Rushmeier and F. Bernardini scanned the Pietà of Florence acquiring both geometric and color details. The digital model, result of the Stanford scanning entrada, was thoroughly used in the 2004 subsequent restoration of the statue.[79]

Monticello [edit]

In 2002, David Luebke, et al. scanned Thomas Jefferson'due south Monticello.[80] A commercial time of flight light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation scanner, the DeltaSphere 3000, was used. The scanner information was afterwards combined with color information from digital photographs to create the Virtual Monticello, and the Jefferson's Chiffonier exhibits in the New Orleans Museum of Art in 2003. The Virtual Monticello exhibit fake a window looking into Jefferson's Library. The exhibit consisted of a rear projection display on a wall and a pair of stereo glasses for the viewer. The glasses, combined with polarised projectors, provided a 3D issue. Position tracking hardware on the spectacles allowed the display to adapt as the viewer moves around, creating the illusion that the brandish is really a pigsty in the wall looking into Jefferson's Library. The Jefferson's Cabinet exhibit was a barrier stereogram (essentially a non-active hologram that appears different from different angles) of Jefferson's Cabinet.

Cuneiform tablets [edit]

The offset 3D models of cuneiform tablets were acquired in Germany in 2000.[81] In 2003 the then-called Digital Hammurabi projection acquired cuneiform tablets with a laser triangulation scanner using a regular grid blueprint having a resolution of 0.025 mm (0.00098 in).[82] With the use of high-resolution 3D-scanners past the Heidelberg University for tablet acquisition in 2009 the development of the GigaMesh Software Framework began to visualize and extract cuneiform characters from 3D-models.[83] Information technology was used to procedure ca. 2.000 3D-digitized tablets of the Hilprecht Collection in Jena to create an Open Access benchmark dataset[84] and an annotated collection[85] of 3D-models of tablets freely available under CC Past licenses.[86]

Kasubi Tombs [edit]

A 2009 CyArk 3D scanning project at Uganda's historic Kasubi Tombs, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, using a Leica HDS 4500, produced detailed architectural models of Muzibu Azaala Mpanga, the primary edifice at the complex and tomb of the Kabakas (Kings) of Uganda. A fire on March 16, 2010, burned downwards much of the Muzibu Azaala Mpanga construction, and reconstruction work is likely to lean heavily upon the dataset produced by the 3D browse mission.[87]

"Plastico di Roma antica" [edit]

In 2005, Gabriele Guidi, et al. scanned the "Plastico di Roma antica",[88] a model of Rome created in the concluding century. Neither the triangulation method, nor the time of flying method satisfied the requirements of this project considering the item to be scanned was both big and independent pocket-sized details. They found though, that a modulated light scanner was able to provide both the ability to scan an object the size of the model and the accurateness that was needed. The modulated light scanner was supplemented by a triangulation scanner which was used to scan some parts of the model.

Other projects [edit]

The 3D Encounters Project at the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology aims to utilise 3D laser scanning to create a high quality 3D image library of artefacts and enable digital travelling exhibitions of fragile Egyptian artefacts, English language Heritage has investigated the use of 3D laser scanning for a broad range of applications to gain archaeological and condition data, and the National Conservation Centre in Liverpool has too produced 3D laser scans on commission, including portable object and in situ scans of archaeological sites.[89] The Smithsonian Institution has a projection called Smithsonian 10 3D notable for the breadth of types of 3D objects they are attempting to scan. These include modest objects such every bit insects and flowers, to human sized objects such every bit Amelia Earhart'south Flight Suit to room sized objects such as the Gunboat Philadelphia to historic sites such as Liang Bua in Indonesia. Also of note the data from these scans is being made available to the public for gratis and downloadable in several data formats.

Medical CAD/CAM [edit]

3D scanners are used to capture the 3D shape of a patient in orthotics and dentistry. Information technology gradually supplants tedious plaster bandage. CAD/CAM software are and so used to pattern and manufacture the orthosis, prosthesis or dental implants.

Many Chairside dental CAD/CAM systems and Dental Laboratory CAD/CAM systems utilize 3D Scanner technologies to capture the 3D surface of a dental grooming (either in vivo or in vitro), in lodge to produce a restoration digitally using CAD software and ultimately produce the concluding restoration using a CAM technology (such every bit a CNC milling machine, or 3D printer). The chairside systems are designed to facilitate the 3D scanning of a preparation in vivo and produce the restoration (such every bit a Crown, Onlay, Inlay or Veneer).

Creation of 3D models for Beefcake and Biology pedagogy[ninety] [91] and cadaver models for educational neurosurgical simulations.[92]

Quality assurance and industrial metrology [edit]

The digitalisation of real-world objects is of vital importance in various application domains. This method is especially applied in industrial quality assurance to measure out the geometric dimension accuracy. Industrial processes such every bit associates are complex, highly automatic and typically based on CAD (computer-aided pattern) data. The problem is that the aforementioned degree of automation is as well required for quality assurance. It is, for instance, a very complex job to assemble a modern motorcar, since it consists of many parts that must fit together at the very end of the production line. The optimal performance of this process is guaranteed by quality assurance systems. Especially the geometry of the metal parts must exist checked in guild to assure that they have the correct dimensions, fit together and finally work reliably.

Within highly automatic processes, the resulting geometric measures are transferred to machines that manufacture the desired objects. Due to mechanical uncertainties and abrasions, the result may differ from its digital nominal. In order to automatically capture and evaluate these deviations, the manufactured office must exist digitised equally well. For this purpose, 3D scanners are practical to generate bespeak samples from the object'southward surface which are finally compared against the nominal data.[93]

The process of comparing 3D information confronting a CAD model is referred to as CAD-Compare, and can exist a useful technique for applications such as determining wear patterns on moulds and tooling, determining accurateness of final build, analysing gap and flush, or analysing highly complex sculpted surfaces. At present, light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation triangulation scanners, structured lite and contact scanning are the predominant technologies employed for industrial purposes, with contact scanning remaining the slowest, but overall near authentic selection. Nevertheless, 3D scanning technology offers distinct advantages compared to traditional touch probe measurements. White-calorie-free or laser scanners accurately digitize objects all around, capturing fine details and freeform surfaces without reference points or spray. The entire surface is covered at record speed without the take a chance of damaging the role. Graphic comparison charts illustrate geometric deviations of full object level, providing deeper insights into potential causes.[94] [95]

Circumvention of shipping costs and international import/export tariffs [edit]

3D scanning tin be used in conjunction with 3D printing engineering science to about teleport certain object beyond distances without the demand of aircraft them and in some cases incurring import/export tariffs. For case, a plastic object can be 3D-scanned in the United States, the files tin be sent off to a 3D-press facility over in Germany where the object is replicated, effectively teleporting the object across the globe. In the hereafter, every bit 3D scanning and 3D printing technologies go more than and more than prevalent, governments around the world will need to reconsider and rewrite trade agreements and international laws.

Object reconstruction [edit]

After the information has been collected, the acquired (and sometimes already processed) data from images or sensors needs to be reconstructed. This may be done in the same program or in some cases, the 3D information needs to be exported and imported into some other program for farther refining, and/or to add additional data. Such additional information could be gps-location information, ... Also, after the reconstruction, the data might exist straight implemented into a local (GIS) map[96] [97] or a worldwide map such equally Google Globe.

Software [edit]

Several software packages are used in which the acquired (and sometimes already processed) data from images or sensors is imported. Notable software packages include:[98]

  • Qlone
  • 3DF Zephyr
  • Canoma
  • Leica Photogrammetry Suite
  • MeshLab
  • MountainsMap SEM (microscopy applications only)
  • PhotoModeler
  • SketchUp
  • tomviz

Run into also [edit]

  • 3D computer graphics software
  • 3D printing
  • 3D reconstruction
  • 3D selfie
  • Bending-sensitive pixel
  • Depth map
  • Digitization
  • Epipolar geometry
  • Total body scanner
  • Image reconstruction
  • Lite-field camera
  • Photogrammetry
  • Range imaging
  • Remote sensing
  • Structured-light 3D scanner
  • Thingiverse

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_scanning

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